Leadership Versus Management Essay

Introduction: Management versus Leadership Leadership can take on many meanings, be viewed in many different ways and is often misconstrued with management. To understand leadership and management a clear definition has to exist and the person(s) involved in leading or managing must have clear insight of what expectations are required to reach a specific goal. Therefore, this research paper as identified by this author will define leadership and management as they are defined in the Webster’s Dictionary and other scholarly approved references. In addition, this paper will state a personal philosophy of eadership and management and will unpack and explain the language used in each definition. Second, this paper will identify success in leadership for becoming a great leader, and then compare and contrast leadership and management. Finally, the conclusion will summarize the entire paper by stating what is essentially more important, leadership or management. A Personal Philosophy of Leadership In order to understand leadership, the definition ofa leader must be stated. As indicated in the dictionary, â€Å"a leader is someone who leads, is in front or who takes charge. The word lead means to guide† (The Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2004). As stated by an author, â€Å"Leaders take the lead. That is, they initiate ideas and plans. Leaders move people to follow them by showing them consideration! † (Ford 1991 , 25) This author understands a leader to be one who influences and encourages another to follow in doing something great. This author defines leadership as â€Å"the process of, through the power and direction of God, learning how to build relationships with others, allowing them an opportunity to expound on different ideas and thoughts, growing together in knowledge and working together in harmony to accomplish a mutual goal† (Sharp 2007). Leadership is the ability to be responsible, ethical, and have impeccable moral qualities. It is not Just being responsible, ethical, and moral while working within or on a Job, but it is maintaining that standard and continuing to live that lifestyle at all times. It is not the leader saying â€Å"do what I say, but not as I do. Rather, it is dedicating life to God allowing Him to enhance the character required for being that great leader. An extremely profound definition of Christian Leadership was stated this way: â€Å"Christian leadership is a relationship based on God’s Love which is imitated by the participants, the leader(s) and follower(s). T hey both work together in a mutual, accountable, dynamic relationship of duel influence with one another and the whole of the organization, for the purpose of accomplishing shared, God given, visions, purposes and goals† (Sharp 2007). This definitions center is the love of God. As understood by this author, the love flows through both the leader(s) and follower(s). This love will allow both the ability to work together creating a powerful relationship whereby both will not only be able to influence each other, but will be able to influence others as well, until ultimately they ave completed and accomplish that mutual goal. Another author defined leadership this way: â€Å"Christian leadership is a dynamic relational process in which people, under the influence of the Holy Spirit, partner to achieve a common goal – it is serving others by leading and leading others by serving

Bite Me: A Love Story Chapter 24

24. A Love Story? JODY It wasn't the first time she'd crept out of a guy's apartment in the middle of the night with her shoes in her hand, but it was the first time where the decision had been because she didn't want to kill the guy. He was so little, so frail, so lonely. She had taken people before who had the black ring in their life aura like Okata's, and they had thanked her. It had been mercy, relief, the end of pain, yet she couldn't make herself do it. She'd left him there, not to die alone, although he probably would, and not because he had been so kind to her, saving her, which he had, but because the prints weren't finished. He was a strange little man, a hermit and a swordsman, and he carried some great pain in him, but above all that, he was an artist, and she couldn't bear to stop that. So she'd left. Now she was back. He sheathed his sword and tried to lift her to her feet. Her limbs still felt like they were on fire, and she could move only her right arm on her own. She nodded toward Bella's pellet weapon. â€Å"Give it to me, Okata.† She made a grasping motion. He leaned her in a sitting position against the wrought-iron railing that surrounded the steps to his apartment, then retrieved the weapon and fit it into her hand. Then he held the barrel firmly and said something stern in Japanese. â€Å"No, I'm not going to off myself,† she said, and she smiled. He let go of the barrel of the gun and she sprayed Bella's corpse with pellets until the gun stopped firing, then she threw the gun over the rail and motioned for Okata to help her into his apartment. Bella's body was nothing more than slimy chunks of meat by the time Okata got her through the door. In the morning, when the sun hit it, there would be only a charred stain on the sidewalk with burned gobs of plastic that had been a Kevlar suit, shoes, and sunglasses. Okata helped her to the shower, where he rinsed out her wounds, then dried her off and retrieved the last bit of the pig's blood, which he'd kept in the refrigerator. Jody felt a horrible twinge of guilt. He'd been waiting for her, probably had been outside looking for her when Bella had chased her around the corner. After she drank the blood, and her legs had healed enough to hold her weight, she went to his workbench and turned on the light. The last print was there. Not finished, but two of the woodblocks had been finished, the black and the red. There she was, in the shower, her red hair streaming behind her in the water, black bits of ash puddling at her feet. Okata was beside her, looking at the print critically, as if there was something he might have to fix at any second. She bent down and looked back from the angle of the print into his face. â€Å"Hey,† she said. â€Å"Thank you.† â€Å"Okay,† he said. â€Å"Sorry,† she said. FOO DOG Abby lay on the futon in the loft's great room. The empty rat cages were stacked in the corner of the room and Foo had unscrewed one of the plywood panels over the windows to let some light in. He'd been monitoring Abby's vital signs since six in the morning. At least she had vital signs. She hadn't even started with those. At noon, she opened her eyes. â€Å"Foo, you dick, I'm mortal.† â€Å"You're okay!† He threw his arms around her. She pushed him away. â€Å"Where's Tommy? Where's the Countess?† â€Å"Tommy's in the bedroom. I don't know where Jody is.† â€Å"She didn't call?† â€Å"No.† â€Å"Fucksocks! Did you turn Tommy back, too?† â€Å"No. I started making his serum, but he didn't want to do anything until they take care of the other vampire. We need to, though, Abby. He won't live much longer if we don't.† â€Å"I know. The pirate Rasta guy on the black ship told us. Other vampire? Only one?† â€Å"Rivera called while you were unconscious. The Animals took one of them down at the Safeway.† â€Å"Did you tell him to stay off the black ship?† â€Å"Tommy did.† â€Å"What about Chet?† â€Å"I don't know.† â€Å"He could be-Hey, where's my tail?† â€Å"It sort of fell off when you turned back to human.† â€Å"Did you save it?† â€Å"Well, no. I left it on the coffee table and when the sun came up, well, it sort of burned up.† â€Å"You burned up my tail? That was a part of me.† â€Å"It was a disgusting part of you.† â€Å"You're such a racist, Foo. I'm glad we broke up.† â€Å"We did?† â€Å"We were going to, weren't we? Wasn't that what you wanted to talk about? About how I'm way too complex and mysterious for you and you need to return to your traditional science-nerd values and live in the Sunset with your parents, instead of the awesome love lair with your goddess-like vampire girlfriend, who will never do you again, even when you beg, even out of pity, no matter how fly your sexy manga hair is? Isn't that what you were going to say?† â€Å"Not in so many words. I'm going to move to Berkeley. It's hard, Abby-â€Å" â€Å"Well, save your breath, s'il vous pla;t, I'm over you. I will not be further abused by your toady banalities and whatnot.† â€Å"Your mom called. She wants you to come home.† â€Å"Yeah, that's going to happen. Oh, what's this, monkeys flying out of my tailless butt?† â€Å"She said they sent your report card. You passed Mr. Snavely's biology class.† â€Å"I did?† â€Å"She said she almost fainted. Jared said it was your extra-credit project that did it. Why didn't you tell me you took one of the rats to school with you?† â€Å"Well, I didn't think it worked out that well. I mean, the rat was already vamped, so when I took him out of the shoe box, he just looked kind of dead. And Mr. Snavely was all, â€Å"‘Oh, that's lovely, Allison, a dead rat.'† But it was sunny in biology lab, and all of a sudden my rat just spontaneously combusts, and I'm all, ‘Check it, bitches, spontaneous rodent combustion, it's the wave of the future.'† â€Å"Well, because he couldn't figure out how you did it, he passed you.† â€Å"I am the dark mistress of Biology One-oh-two. Fear me. Rawr!† she said. Then she kissed him hard, but not as hard as she had when she was a vampire, which was a relief, but then she pushed him away and slapped him. â€Å"Ouch. I didn't think you were a slut.† â€Å"I know, that's was our bittersweet break-up kiss. I will go grieve now until Lord Flood awakes and we resume the search for the Countess. I'm starving. Do you want to go get a sammy and a Starbucks? I have like ten grand in my messenger.† THE LOVE LAIR He awoke at sundown with her face in his mind's eye and panic running up his spine. He bolted out of the bedroom into the great room, where Abby was hanging up the phone. â€Å"That was the Countess,† Abby said. â€Å"She's okay. She'll be here in a few minutes.† â€Å"And you're okay? You're alive. You have heat.† He could see the heat coming off her and the healthy life aura around her. â€Å"Yeah, thanks. Foo destroyed my tail.† She turned and looked to the kitchen. â€Å"The traitorous racist heartbreaking fucktard!† â€Å"Little harsh,† Tommy said. â€Å"He saved your life.† â€Å"Heartbroken. Grieving. Inconsolable. Tail's gone. Going to have to get totally repierced and tattooed.† â€Å"But you showered and your eye makeup isn't all racoony anymore.† â€Å"Thanks. I like the blood splatters on your pants.† â€Å"Hi,† said Foo Dog from the kitchen, where he was filling a syringe with what looked like blood. â€Å"I have your serum ready, whenever you're ready.† â€Å"I'm not ready.† â€Å"You have to, you know.† The doorbell buzzed. Tommy keyed the intercom. â€Å"It's me,† Jody said. He buzzed her in and she was at the top of the steps in an instant, then kissing him. He pushed her back and looked at her clothes, shredded at the elbows and knees, stained with blood. â€Å"What happened to you? Where were you?† â€Å"One of the old vampires? She ambushed me on a roof across from the black ship. That weapon they have did this. It's horrible. We can't let them get near us with that thing.† â€Å"How did you get away?† â€Å"I was hiding at the bottom of a pool, trying to figure out what to do, when Chet jumped her. I got out of there while Chet was dry-humping her.† â€Å"Yeah. Go Chet!† said Abby. â€Å"Abby!† Jody ran to Abby and hugged her, kissed her on the forehead. â€Å"I was so worried about you. You're alive. Really alive.† â€Å"Yeah. Foo changed me back. I want to be nosferatu again.† They all turned to face Foo, who was still in the kitchen. â€Å"Can't do it, Abs. You won't survive a second time. I tried it on the rats. You're only human.† â€Å"Doomed,† Abby said. â€Å"Jody,† Tommy said, â€Å"what about the vampire who attacked you?† â€Å"Gone. Destroyed. Someone rescued me just before she killed me. So there's only one left, right?† â€Å"They're all gone,† Tommy said. â€Å"Rivera called. The Animals got the other one. There's only Elijah on the black ship.† Jody put her hand to his face. â€Å"Tommy, we have to talk.† â€Å"I know,† he said. Foo Dog said, â€Å"Jody, I have no way of knowing when Tommy might, uh, expire. He could go faster than Abby was going.† â€Å"Come with me.† Jody took Tommy's hand and led him into the bedroom. â€Å"I've got to show you something. You two, do not come into this room, do you hear me?† TOMMY AND JODY â€Å"We can't make crazy monkey love now, Jody. They'll hear us, and we usually end up breaking all the furniture.† â€Å"You learned how to go to mist, when you were with Chet. You said you learned?† â€Å"Yeah, that's how I got these clothes. They're stupid, aren't they?† â€Å"Tommy, the vampire, the old one, her name was Bella, she told me something. Kiss me. Kiss me and go to mist. Don't think about it, don't stop, just melt into the kiss.† She kissed him and felt him as he faded from solid, and followed him exactly, until they were a single entity, sharing every secret, every fear, every victory, everything, the very essence of who they were, wrapping around each other, winding through each other as each lived the other's history, as every experience they had, they had together, with comfort and joy, with abandon and passion, without words or boundaries, and as often happens to two in love, time lost all meaning, and they might have stayed there, like that, forever. When they finally fell out of it they were naked, on the bed, giggling like insane children. â€Å"Wow,† Tommy said first. â€Å"Yeah,† she said. â€Å"So, Okata saved you?† â€Å"Yeah, he needed to save someone. He had always needed to save someone.† â€Å"I know. I'm okay with it, you know?† â€Å"Yeah, I know,† she said. â€Å"I can't do it, Jody. It's amazing, and I adore you, but I can't do it.† â€Å"I know,† she said, because she did. â€Å"This is me now, Tommy. I like this, I like the night, I like the power. I like not being afraid. I was never anything until I was this. I love being this.† â€Å"I know,† he said. He knew that she had always been cute, but not beautiful. Always a little dissatisfied with who she was, worried about what men, or her mother, or anyone thought of her. But she was beautiful now. Strong. She was exactly what she wanted to be. He said, â€Å"I need the words, Jody. It's who I am.† â€Å"I know.† â€Å"I'm not a vampire. I'm a writer. I came here to be a writer. I want to use gelatinous in a sentence. And not just once, but over and over. On the roof, under the moon, in an elevator, on the washing machine, and when I'm exhausted, I want to lay in my own gelatinous sweat and use gelatinous in a sentence until I pass out.† Jody said, â€Å"I don't think gelatinous means what you think it means.† â€Å"It doesn't matter. It's what I need to do. I need to write something. I need to write my little Holocaust girl story.† â€Å"I thought it was a little girl growing up in the segregated South.† â€Å"Yeah, whatever. It's important.† â€Å"You know I know this already, right?† â€Å"I know, but that's what I'm saying, I need the words. I love you, but I need the words.† â€Å"I know,† she said. â€Å"Let's go let Foo change you back into a word guy.† â€Å"And you're going to go away?† â€Å"I have to.† â€Å"I know,† he said. â€Å"You know, I think that merging might have ruined me.† â€Å"Why?† â€Å"Because you're lying there completely naked and I don't want to sex you up.† â€Å"Really?† â€Å"Let me think about it. No, false alarm, I'm okay.† â€Å"C'mere, writer boy. Let's break some furniture.† THE RAVEN â€Å"Praise Jah's sweet love for given us a fired-haired snowy biscuit,† Kona said. â€Å"Welcome, me sweet deadie sistah. Welcome aboard.† â€Å"Mistress,† Jody said. â€Å"Sweet deadie mistress.† â€Å"Troot, mistress. Welcome aboard.† The ship was a wonder of technology and luxury. Kona had lent Foo Dog his security bracelet and Foo had gone aboard and reset the security so the ship didn't kill anyone who set foot on board, then he and Kona had walked her through the ship showing her the thousand different ways it had been set to kill a person. It was an elegant, redundant death trap. â€Å"You'll want to turn the systems back on,† Foo had said. â€Å"There's a reason they had this kind of security.† Jody said good-bye and led him off the ship. Now that she had one of his UV lasers in one hand and a number of vacuum blood vials in the other she followed the ersatz Rastaman down to the deepest chamber of the ship, where Foo had not gone. They approached a wide, white, waterproof hatch with a small porthole and a heavy stainless-steel wheel securing it. Kona hit a light switch. â€Å"That make just a wee UV, mistress. Make dat dogheart bastid turn solid so he can't sneak out.† Jody looked in the port and a face hit it with a snarl, leaving bloody spit on the thick glass. â€Å"Well, hello, pumpkin. How have you been?† The vampire snarled. It was Elijah, the old vampire who had turned her, turned them all, really, if the legend was true. But he looked like a wild animal now, naked, his fangs bared, snarling at the tiny window. â€Å"Can he hear me?† Jody asked. â€Å"Oh yeah, he hear. You got to tell him to go to the back of da room, ma. I'n'I can lock him back there with the second door. Like an airlock. Dat's how we feed dat old buggah.† â€Å"Go to the back of the room, Elijah. I have something I need you to do.† The vampire snarled at her. â€Å"Okey dokey,† she said, and she put on her sunglasses, placed Foo's laser against the glass, and promptly blasted Elijah's right ear into ash. He roared at her. â€Å"Oh, I know that had to hurt. Hear that high whining sound, Elijah. That's the laser recharging. Takes about a minute. When it's done I'm going to burn off your willie unless you get your ancient ass to the back of the cell.† She smiled. â€Å"Shoots, brah, she a cold heart bitch don't you know. You outta-shoulda do what she say, yeah?† The old vampire backed through the inside door, snarling, and Kona worked the switch, sealing it. Then he opened the heavy outer hatch. Jody placed the vacuum vials in the chamber, then said, â€Å"Okay, Elijah, I need you to fill these with that sweet, first-generation vampire blood.† They sealed the outer hatch, and Elijah snarled and resisted, but after having his other ear burned off, relented. Twenty minutes later Jody was holding the four vials of Elijah's blood and Elijah was lapping two quarts of tuna blood out of a stainless-steel bowl. â€Å"He be all right,† Kona said. â€Å"Dem ear heal up in minutes and he be back in the mystic fo' weeks.† â€Å"And how long to get the rest of the art supplies onto the Raven?† she asked. â€Å"It's all on board, mistress.† â€Å"Then cast off, Cap'n.† â€Å"Aye, aye, mistress.† Jody turned to Okata, who had stood silently, his eyes wide, watching the whole scene. â€Å"These are for you,† she said, holding out the vials. â€Å"I'll help you. I hope you like night scenes. You're going to have a lot of prints to make. But you'll have time.† â€Å"Okay,† said the swordsman, with a smile.

Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanism

ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION APPROACHES AND THEIR APPLICATION Yona Shamir Israel Center for Negotiation and Mediation (ICNM), Israel (Assisted by Ran Kutner) SC-2003/WS/43 The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This article is a contribution from UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme to the World Water Assessment Programme. It was prepared within the framework of the joint UNESCO–Green Cross International project entitled â€Å"From Potential Conflict to Co-o peration Potential (PCCP): Water for Peace,† and was made possible by the generous financial assistance of the Japanese government.CONTENTS Summary 1. Introduction and Overview 2. The ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) Spectrum 3. Negotiation: Principles and Procedures 3. 1. Competitive and Integrative Models 3. 2. Principles 3. 3. Skills 3. 4. Cultural and Identity Aspects 3. 5. Psychological Aspects 3. 5. 1. Psychological Traps 3. 6. International Negotiation 3. 7. Negotiations Over Water 3. 7. 1. International Water Negotiations/Conflicts 3. 7. 2. Intra-national Water Negotiations/Disputes 3. 8. Treaties 4. Mediation 4. 1. The Advantages of Mediation 4. 2. Positive Results of Mediation 4. 3. The Role of the Mediator 4. . Skills and Tools of a Good Mediator 4. 5. The Problems that the Mediator Attempts to Resolve 4. 6. Techniques and Strategies 4. 7. Models and Approaches to Mediation 4. 8. Controversial Issues in Mediation 4. 9. Psychological Issues 4. 10. Ethical Code, I ssues, and Dilemmas 4. 11. International Mediation 4. 11. 1. Mediation in International Water Conflicts 5. Consensus Building: Principles, and Procedures 5. 1. Principles and Procedures 6. Conclusion 7. ADR Basics: Definitions Bibliography 1 2 4 6 6 7 10 12 13 14 16 18 18 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 26 26 27 29 29 30 31 31 33 33 36 37 40ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION APPROACHES AND THEIR APPLICATION Alternative Dispute Resolution comprises various approaches for resolving disputes in a non-confrontational way, ranging from negotiation between the two parties, a multiparty negotiation, through mediation, consensus building, to arbitration and adjudication The article introduces the key skills required, with particular attention to their important role in the process of negotiation and mediation, with examples of their application in national and international water conflicts. Conflict is endemic to human society, among individuals and groups, and it is important to manage it.We find stories in the Bible, in the Islamic culture, among Native Americans, First Nations in Canada, and many other traditions that describe processes that have been used from the earliest times to find peaceful solutions to various disputes, and much can be learned from the past. In recent decades, the various conflict resolution approaches have become a widely accepted field both of academic study and of practice, with official and/or legislative functions in many countries. In international relations, they plays an increasing role in containing, managing and resolving potential sources of conflict.The article reviews its complex development. While conflict can be dangerous, it also carries the possibility of producing creative cooperation in a win–win solution. The key to this is for participants to engage as joint problem solvers, seeking to resolve the dispute, and to try and â€Å"enlarge the pie† rather than acting as adversaries and aggravating the situation. A mediator can play a valuable role in this process, facilitate a negotiation process which has come to a dead end, helping the parties concerned to focus on their essential interests rather than defend (or attack) fixed positions.The principles and procedures of consensus building are dealt with in some detail. The article outlines the principles of negotiation, based on interests and needs of the parties, the use of proper communication, and maintenance of a working relationship as an essential component for reaching a durable agreement. It lists and considers the essential skills needed by negotiators and mediators, and points the different cultural expectations (national, regional, religious, or professional) and the psychological aspects that affect perceptions and communications.It outlines a range of strategies for and approaches to mediation, and the ethical problems that may arise. 1 1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR, sometimes also called â€Å"Appropriat e Dispute Resolution†) is a general term, used to define a set of approaches and techniques aimed at resolving disputes in a non-confrontational way. It covers a broad spectrum of approaches, from party-to-party engagement in negotiations as the most direct way to reach a mutually accepted resolution, to arbitration and adjudication at the other end, where an external party imposes a solution.Somewhere along the axis of ADR approaches between these two extremes lies â€Å"mediation,† a process by which a third party aids the disputants to reach a mutually agreed solution. This article introduces the key concepts, principles and skills of ADR in a generic form with examples of how they might be applied in the context of water conflicts. The glossary contains definitions of terms used, and readers are advised to familiarize themselves with them. Conflicts have existed in all cultures, religions, and societies since time immemorial, as long as humans have walked the earth. In fact, they also exist in the animal kingdom. Philosophies and procedures for dealing with conflicts have been part of the human heritage, differing between cultures and societies. Nations, groups, and individuals have tried throughout history to manage conflicts in order to minimize the negative and undesirable effects that they may pose. Conflicts can develop in any situation where people interact, in every situation where two or more persons, or groups of people, perceive that their interests are opposing, and that these interests cannot be met to the satisfaction of all the parties involved.Because conflicts are an integral part of human interaction, one must learn to manage them, to deal with them in a way that will prevent escalation and destruction, and come up with innovative and creative ideas to resolve them. Dealing with conflicts – â€Å"conflict management,† or â€Å"conflict resolution† as it has come to be called in professional circles – is as old as humanity itself. Stories of handling conflicts and the art of managing them are told at length throughout the history of every nation and ethnic group who share the same history. Conflicts have been recorded from the very early days of humankind.We find in The Bible and similar religious and historical documents in different cultures an account of conflicts that were resolved by various processes, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and adjudication. We also find accounts of various types of negotiations: between animals and humans, between two persons, between an individual and a group, between two groups, and between humans and God. The first negotiation in The Bible was between the snake and Eve, over the apple in the Garden of Eden. But not all conflicts in religious scriptures have been resolved by alternative/appropriate dispute resolution (ADR).One that was resolved by force and violence is the story of Cain and Abel. In The Bible we find among many s tories of conflicts and their resolution, the story of Abraham and Lot negotiating, where Abraham, in order to avoid a fight, offers Lot a deal that Lot cannot refuse. Negotiation was conducted not only between people, but also between humans and God. Abraham negotiated with God over the fate of the people of Sodom and Gomorra. God also acted as a mediator between Abraham and Sara when she wanted Abraham to expel Hagar and her son.In the Muslim tradition we find the story of Muhammad who negotiated with God over the number of times that the followers will pray. Muhammad managed to reduce the number from the initial fifty times a day down to five, using as his main argument the necessity to leave enough time for people to do things other than pray. Throughout history, individuals and groups used a variety of ways to resolve their disputes, trying to reach a resolution acceptable to all parties. There is a 2 common belief in all cultures that it is best to resolve disputes and to reac h an agreed end to them, because conflict is a destructive force. In the wentieth century many reached the understanding that disputes are normal in human society, and not necessarily destructive, and that if they do not get out of hand they may have within them a potential for growth, maturity, and social changes, an opportunity for new ways of thinking and new experiences. Because conflicts are an integral part of human interaction, one should learn to manage them: to deal with them in a way that prevents escalation and destruction, and arrives at new, innovative, and creative ideas to resolve them. Much can be learned about the different ways in which conflicts have been prevented in the past.In older societies, resolving disputes was considered a unique ability reserved for the wise and the elders of the community or for religious leaders. More recently, conflict prevention has become a primary focus of interest for everyone, and this has resulted in an ever-expanding field of s tudy and practice. The field of conflict resolution gained momentum in the last three decades of the twentieth century. It has developed into a widely accepted field of study, where skills and strategies are being taught, and changes in philosophical attitudes occur through training and enhanced self-awareness.The increasing academic activity and practical training initiatives have generated a vast and expanding body of research and publications. The field is characterized by diversity and complexity. It is diverse because conflicts exist in every facet of individual and social life: between business partners, employers and employees, among employees, between trading partners, among neighbors, between parents and their children, husbands and wives, an individual and society, and between countries.The field of â€Å"conflict resolution† has matured as a multidisciplinary field involving psychology, sociology, social studies, law, business, anthropology, gender studies, politic al sciences, and international relations. The discipline is complex because it deals with conflicts at different stages of their existence, and also because it is a mix of theory and practice, and of art and science, as Howard Raiffa demonstrated so brilliantly in his book The Art and Science of Negotiation (1982). The â€Å"science† is the systematic analysis of problem solving, and the †art† is the skills, personal abilities, and wisdom.Some conflicts may not be resolved easily, and can last many years. Sometimes these conflicts persist in spite of the fact that they cause heavy losses of resources, and even human life. According to a study at Stanford University (Arrow et al. , 1995) there are three categories of barriers to resolving conflicts: ? ? ? Tactical and strategic barriers; these stem from the parties’ efforts to maximize short or long term gains. Psychological barriers; these stem from differences in social identity, needs, fear, interpretatio n, values, and perceptions of one another.Organizational, institutional and structural barriers; these can disrupt the transfer of information, and prevent leaders from reaching decisions that are in the interests of the parties in dispute. A conflict may store within it the potential for a future major dispute, but at the same time it also contains the possibility of future creative cooperation, provided the parties seek what is called the â€Å"win–win solution. † To accomplish this, one must learn to negotiate in a manner that is less competitive and adversarial, thereby invoking the potential for cooperation.By working together as â€Å"joint problem solvers† seeking joint solutions and not working against one another, the participants can â€Å"enlarge the pie† that is to be 3 divided. This can be done either by negotiation, or with the help of an impartial third party who will act as mediator. Third-party intervention is used when a negotiation reac hes an impasse. It is used to restore belief in the possibility of a beneficial resolution for the parties, future dialogue, and restored relationships, while leaving the control over the decisions with the parties.President Carter acted as a mediator between President Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Begin of Israel. Former US Senator George Mitchell acted as a mediator in Northern Ireland. An outside third party, whether a person (Archbishop Desmond Tutu), a group of people, a representative of a state (Henry Kissinger), or an international organization (The Vatican, The UN) can act as a mediator, in an attempt to help the parties reach an understanding, and an agreed solution to the conflict.A third party, a neutral, can also act as an arbitrator, hear the parties’ arguments and reach a decision which can be binding, or non-binding according to the agreement made beforehand. A dispute between Israel and Egypt over the location of the border between the two countries in th e Gulf of the Red Sea was settled in favor of Egypt by an international arbitration panel, on September 29 1988. Israel had to return the town of Taba, a resort town near Eilat, to Egypt as a result of the arbitration.Adjudication is another method that can be used as an alternative in the international arena (The International Court in The Hague) and in the national local system. The courts have the ability to enforce the law in the case of a failure of the parties to reach agreement through negotiation or mediation. There is a law, and a way to enforce it without the consent of the parties. In international disputes, where states are involved, when problems arise due to opposing interests, such as security and/or resources, an outside enforcer cannot act where it is not acceptable to one or more of the parties involved.Ruling by the International Court can end the conflict only if the two countries agree to abide by its ruling. Conflict prevention, de-escalation, management, and r esolution can all be applied to conflicts involving water. The choice of the applicable process will depend on the particular circumstances and context of the water conflict. We will examine each of these key processes and than review their potential role in water conflicts. 2. THE ADR (ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION) SPECTRUMOn the spectrum between an agreement reached by the parties by direct negotiation, based on mutual understanding, and a binding decision rendered by a third party’s authority in a procedure of adjudication, there are many other ways of dealing with disputes. These options and possibilities create â€Å"a menu† of alternative or appropriate dispute resolution (ADR) that parties may choose to use, with the intent of removing a potential source of conflict, preventing its escalation into a dispute, and finding the way back to a constructive cooperative and a potentially productive future working relationship.The ADR â€Å"movement† started in the United States in the 1970s in response to the need to find more efficient and effective alternatives to litigation. Today, ADR is 4 flourishing throughout the world because it has proven itself, in multiple ways, to be a better way to resolve disputes. The search for efficient and better ways to resolve disputes, and the art of managing conflicts, are as old as humanity itself, yet it has only been within the last thirty years or so that ADR as a movement has begun to be embraced enthusiastically by the legal system.More recently, ADR has become institutionalized as part of many court systems and system for justice as a whole throughout the world. The first ADR method to gain acceptance was arbitration, which shared many of its practices and procedures with the judicial system, including the judge (or arbitrator) deciding the outcome of the dispute. ADR has matured and developed, and mediation is being received as a preferred alternative and has become widely accepted as a proce ss providing more flexibility and less procedural complexity.The US Federal Civil Rights Act (1964) led to the formation of the CRS (Community Relations Service in the US Department of Justice), which was mandated to help â€Å"communities and persons therein in resolving disputes, disagreements, or difficulties relating to discriminatory practices based on race, color, or national origin† (Moore, 1996). â€Å"Mediators† were asked to assist in resolving disputes of any sort, and not only to deal with issues of discrimination (Goldberg et al. , 1992).The US federal government funded Neighborhood Justice Centers (NJC), provide free or low-cost mediation services. Throughout the United States and other countries, the courts became involved in mediation, following Professor Frank Sander’s (Harvard University) vision of a courthouse that would become a dispute resolution center – a â€Å"multi-door courthouse† – where each case would be referred to a process most appropriate to it. The NJC’s became part of a city-based, court-based, or district attorney-based alternative dispute resolution service.The American Bar Association took a proactive role in the process and created CPR – The Center for Public Resources center – which provides ADR services. Following an act of Congress (1990), federal agencies are obligated to use mediation in certain civil cases before going to court. Many states passed a law requiring mandatory mediation. In the private sector, many large US and multinational companies signed a mediation pledge, according to which they use mediation before going to court. Several countries are experiencing similar growth while continuing to develop new and creative ADR processes and applications.Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom have become pioneers in the field. In the United Kingdom, the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS) was set up in 1974 to deal wi th industrial disputes, and at the end of the 1980s commercial mediation services became available, corresponding to the Lord Chancellor’s statement in a television interview, â€Å"Mediation and other methods of resolving disputes earlier, without going to court, produce satisfactory results to both sides are, I think, very much to be encouraged† (Acland, 1990).The ADR movement has been gaining popularity, and a movement that started as an answer to needs of the judicial system, has generated interest in a variety of fields (such as education, society, environment, international, and gender concerns). In the 1980s, the US National Association of Mediation in Education (NAME) was founded, and a large variety of ADR programs, including negotiation, problem solving, and mediation was introduced in schools.A variety of skills and techniques are taught: communication skills, different approaches of managing conflicts effectively, tracing needs and real interests, moving fr om positions to interests, how to deal with intense emotions, re-framing, open questions, and so on. The expansion of these programs and practices in education is becoming increasingly widespread. In 1997, there were over 8,500 school-based 5 conflict resolution programs in the United States, taught in over 86,000 public schools.Alongside the search for ways to solve or manage diversities that turn into disputes and help people manage/solve existing disputes, advocates of ADR emphasize the need to develop and use the skills resulting from diversity that can help to prevent the escalation of disputes; this can be done by using joint problem solving in conflict situations, in order to enhance cooperation for the improvement of future relations. 3. NEGOTIATION: PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES Goldberg, Sander, and Rogers in Dispute Resolution: Negotiation, Mediation, and Other Processes (1992) define negotiation as â€Å"communication for the purpose of persuasion. Negotiation is a process in which parties to a dispute discuss possible outcomes directly with each other. Parties exchange proposals and demands, make arguments, and continue the discussion until a solution is reached, or an impasse declared. In negotiations there are three approaches to resolving the dispute, each with a different orientation and focus – interest-based, rights-based, and power-based – and they can result in different outcomes (Ury et al. , 1993). INTEREST-BASED NEGOTIATION This approach shifts the focus of the discussion from positions to interests.Because there are many interests underlying any position, a discussion based on interests opens up a range of possibilities and creative options, whereas positions very often cannot be reconciled and may therefore lead to a dead end. The dialogue on interest should be transparent, in order for the parties to arrive at an agreement that will satisfy the needs and interests of the parties. While interest-based negotiations have the potential of leading to the best outcomes, the parties may not adopt it, and therefore we often find that negotiations are â€Å"rights-based† or â€Å"power-based. † RIGHTS-BASED NEGOTIATIONWhen negotiations between parties fail, the parties may then attempt to resort to what they consider to be their rights. This means appealing to the court (local, national, or international) and will result in a legal process in which the law is the dominant feature. POWER-BASED NEGOTIATION Resorting to threat or even violence as a way of communication for the purpose of persuasion is called power-based negotiation (for example, the posture of the Americans in the Cuban missile crisis). Rights-based and power-based approaches are used at times when parties cannot or are not willing to resolve their issues through interest-based negotiation. . 1. Competitive and Integrative Models Negotiations are characterized by polarity between two extremes: ? ? Competition – Cooperation O pposing interests – Common interests Competition and opposing interests lead to a requirement by the parties to divide the assets or resources under dispute. They lead to â€Å"dividing the pie† or â€Å"claiming value,† 6 in other words a â€Å"zero-sum game. † On the other hand, when negotiations are based on cooperation and identification of common interests, this can lead to seeking opportunities for â€Å"increasing the pie† (which is also called â€Å"creating value†).When negotiations are based on common interests, cooperation, and joint problem solving, this is called the â€Å"integrative or collaborative model. † This model was developed at PON (the Project On Negotiation) at Harvard University in the early 1980s. It is useful for parties to negotiate over a number of issues or resources, since they can try to create value and maximize benefits by trade offs between them. This is because the order of priority among these iss ues for one party may differ from that of the other and provide an opportunity for exchanges.Therefore, the parties find ways to increase gains through creativity, originality, and linkage between issues to enlarge the overall pie, thereby creating value. To provide an historical example of the difference between positions and interests, consider the issue of the Sinai in the dealings between President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menahem Begin of Israel, in the wake of the 1967 Six Day War. Each leader claimed that the territory of the Sinai, taken over by Israel in the war, belonged to his nation. This was their stated position.President Jimmy Carter, acting as mediator, interrogated the two leaders as to their interests, and identified them as follows: Egypt wanted sovereignty over the territory, in line with the national position that Egypt would not yield control over the territory which it considered to be its own; Israel’s interest was to have guarantees of security on its border with Egypt, in view of the threat it had been facing on this border previously. President Carter then proposed that the Sinai would be returned to sovereign Egyptian rule, but would remain a demilitarized zone.This creative solution satisfied the interests of both sides, and was therefore agreed. The principles of the interest-based model can be used in any type of negotiations: from buying a car to resolving a conflict between the United States and Mexico over water, and from buying a company to dealing with the selection of a site for building a wastewater treatment plant. Negotiation based on â€Å"rights† or â€Å"power† fall under the â€Å"adversarial, distributive, or competitive model,† where the parties try to get the best deal for themselves at a cost to the others. A gain for one side means a loss for the other.Living in a society in which competition is part of the daily experience, we tend to think of competition as the only w ay to reach our goals. Competition is almost always at the expense of someone else. In the â€Å"conventional way,† a negotiation is â€Å"zero-sum game† – whatever one side wins the other side loses. Both of the parties assume that it would be best to ensure that they end the negotiation at the positive side of the equation. 3. 2. Principles â€Å"The reason to negotiate is to produce something better than the results that you can obtain without negotiation† (Fisher et al. 1991). The goal is to reach an agreement that is acceptable to all parties, to which they remain committed, and which they indeed implement. This is the essence of interest-based negotiations, which has the following principles: 7 INTERESTS–NEEDS Interests are needs (food, shelter, security, and so on), desires, aspirations, fears, hopes, and concerns. Positions are what we want and demand. The interests are the reasons behind the position. In negotiating on the basis of interes ts, parties will need to: ? ? ? distinguish between positions and interests move from positions to interests list all the interests according to priority think of positions as only one of many solutions to the problem. ALTERNATIVES Alternatives are those actions that one can take outside the negotiations, alone or possibly with a third partner, but without the party with whom one negotiates. The alternative that yields the best outcome for you is called the BATNA (Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement). The BATNA is the â€Å"best alternative to a negotiated agreement. If any of your alternatives without negotiation is better than the deal on the negotiating table, you will obviously go to the best alternative. If however the deal on the table is better than any of your alternatives, it will be your BATNA. It is important to make sure that the alternatives are indeed realistic, and try to improve your BATNA, because the BATNA influences the way in which you conduct the negotia tions. Having a BATNA provides us with the ability to negotiate effectively, and provide the answers to the following: ? ? ?What are our alternatives if this negotiation reaches a dead end? Do we have an alternative at all if the negotiations fail? Which agreement do we consider (the one which is at least as good as our BATNA)? OPTIONS This is the range of outcomes that the parties agree to consider during the negotiations. Options are outcomes that can enlarge the pie and create value with little or no extra cost to the parties. In developing the options use the following criteria: ? ? ? Use brain storming among the parties to generate a list of options.Look to the interests in order to generate a broad range of options to choose from. Include options that will answer both parties’ needs and interests. STANDARDS AND CRITERIA Objective standards and criteria can be used in the negotiations to enable both parties to perceive the process as fair and legitimate. Objective standa rds and criteria include: ? ? ? ? ? market value of an asset or a resource the law regarding the matter being discussed precedents opinion of an expert priority of human water consumption over other users (in water issues). 8 COMMUNICATIONThis refers to all the means by which the parties communicate with each another, including spoken words, level and tone of speech, body language, and any other means that parties use to signal to one another. This is important because part of the message is not just the words, but also in the manner in which it is delivered. To consider these aspects one must: ? ? be attentive to all signals of communication speak clearly and exercise â€Å"active listening† (discussed in Section 3. 3: Skills). RELATIONSHIP This refers to the interpersonal and intergroup dynamics between all the parties to the negotiation.Proper consideration of these elements requires that one: ? ? Separate the people from the substance; that is, do not allow oneself to bec ome personal, but stick to the matters being discussed. Consider that there are differences in the way in which people in other cultures value interpersonal relationships as a precondition to holding negotiations. AGREEMENT AND COMMITMENT An agreement should be specific, realistic, operational, clear, and understood by all parties. It should be specific as to who will do what, how, when, and where. In the agreement the parties should commit to what they have agreed.Before signing an agreement one should ask: ? ? ? ? ? Does the agreement anticipate future contingencies, to avoid surprises and disappointments that may result in motivation not to uphold it? Do we have the authority to sign this agreement? Does the other side have the authority to sign this agreement? Do we want a tentative agreement, subject to final approval? Do we want an interim agreement that covers only part of the issues and leaves the rest for a further and final agreement? In interest-based negotiation one shou ld strive to reach an agreement that will satisfy: ? all or most of our interests, and the other parties’ interests in a way that will be acceptable to them. One needs to ensure that the other parties’ interests are met to a degree that will satisfy their interests because their interests are inextricably tied to one’s own and both needs have to be met in order for the agreement to hold. Be cognizant of parties that are absent from the negotiations who will be affected by them or have an influence on their outcome. When Israel signed the contract with the Chinese on the Falcon aircraft, the agreement was satisfactory to both parties, the Israelis and the Chinese.Israel just forgot the third party – the United States – which was not interested in selling know how to the Chinese and objected to the deal. As a result, the agreement fell through, and Israel had to compensate the Chinese for not fulfilling the agreement. 9 3. 3. Skills COMMUNICATION SKI LLS: ACTIVE LISTENING This is one of the most important and difficult skills for a negotiator and a mediator. Active listening as a skill and technique are taught to, and applied by, negotiators and mediators to enhance their effectiveness during the process.Active listening means stopping our inner voices, and truly listening to the other person. Listening will enable you to hear important information, and learn a great deal about the other party. By listening attentively you: ? ? ? ? ? Show interest in what the other party has to say. Show understanding to the way they feel, their positions and underlying issues, hidden agendas, demands, and priorities (showing understanding does not mean that you agree with what was said). Acknowledge that people like to be listened to, and when you listen, you create a positive atmosphere.Hope it may clarify many issues; make you understand the other side’s point of view, and show respect to the other party’s needs, hopes, and fear s. Hope it may help to improve the relationship, and break the cycle of arguments. COMMUNICATION SKILLS: TALKING CLEARLY AND PRECISELY Effective negotiation is also making sure that whatever you said was understood in the way that you meant it to be. You have to speak clearly, phrase your sentences carefully, make sure that the other party listens to you, and check with the other party to make sure that they understood you correctly.Send messages that are comprehensive, and explain where you are coming from, your needs, hopes, and fears. While talking you have to assess if the other party is listening, and how they hear/receive your message. RE-FRAMING POSITIONS AS INTERESTS Re-framing is a way of giving feedback, and showing that you listened and understood what the other party said. It is restating and capturing the essence of what the other party said. One removes the negative tones, and translates the statements of positions into statements of interests and needs. When we start negotiating we have to identify the issues at the table.The issues have to be defined in a neutral and acceptable way to all, and not include any suggestions of the outcome, or judgment of any kind. Typically, parties start the negotiation process by stating their position, and their conclusion of what to do based on it. If the one party opens the negotiation in this manner, that is, by stating a position, it is very helpful to re-frame it as an interest. It helps the parties to identify their interests, and move from position to interests. The supplier to buyer at the municipality: â€Å"I am not going to supply you another pencil before I see some payment for my last shipment. The buyer: â€Å"So, you need a business that can pay you regularly for your supplies. † UNDERSTANDING AND PERCEPTION The negotiation process is influenced by our perceptions and our interpretation of reality. Perceptions are influenced by personal experience, emotional state of mind, and cultural ba ckground. 10 Perception, as shown in Akira Kurosawa’s film Rashomon (1951), varies from one individual to another; we know that four different people who witnessed the same murder may give four totally different accounts of what happened.The negotiator and mediator have to keep eye contact, listen carefully, and make sure that they understood exactly what the other party said. It is important to reframe what was said in order to make sure that what was said was understood and was indeed what was meant. Make sure that what was said was understood correctly, and that the other party knows you have understood. â€Å"Let me make sure that I understood what you said, when you said that we should go ahead with our plans: does it mean that you will be a full partner, or just our contractor? When you negotiate in India and the other party nods his head up and down, does it mean â€Å"yes†? In India it means â€Å"No. † OPEN QUESTIONS Questions are an essential skill fo r the negotiator and mediator. When asking a closed question, we get â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no† for an answer. Often these types of questions are also leading questions â€Å"Would you agree that . . . † â€Å"Didn’t you think that it was unfair . . . † The closed questions, and the leading ones, do not provide us with the essential information we need at the negotiating table and they tend to close down the discussion. Do you want to buy this property? † will provide us only with a â€Å"yes–no† answer, which does not include all the important information regarding the intention/ability of the buyer. â€Å"What are the problems that concern you? † is a question which will provide us with important information as to how they feel about it, what are their concerns, their plans, and so on. â€Å"How do you view the offer Mr. Brown has just made? † is an open-ended question, while â€Å"Do you like Mr. Brown’s of fer? † is a closed question.Open-ended questions such as: â€Å"What are in your opinion the possible advantages and disadvantages regarding his offer? † or â€Å"What would you need to clarify prior to your counter-offer? † provide us with important information that can help the process rather than bring it to a dead end. You have to be aware of your prejudices, values, and biases when you ask the questions, so that if you have any they will not be evident from your tone or body language. SEPARATE THE PEOPLE FROM THE PROBLEM It is important to understand the other party’s point of view, needs, interests, and concerns.One does not have to agree with the other point of view, just understand that it is legitimate to have a different point of view, needs, and concerns. One has to separate the people from the problem. Removing the person usually does not remove or solve the problem. However, trying to separate the person from the problem is not always practica ble. There are societies in which personal relationships have a very high value, and separating the two is difficult. 11 3. 4. Cultural and Identity Aspects International and ethnic conflicts have within them components that are intangible, hard to define and to identify: culture and identity.Without recognizing them, and dealing with them, the negotiation or mediation has little chance of success. Faure and Rubin (1993) define culture as â€Å"a set of shared and enduring meanings, values, and beliefs that characterize national, ethnic, and other groups, and orient their behavior. † There are cultural differences between the individual and the collective. There are countries and cultures that stress the high value of collective responsibility and commitment to the group, while in others the stress is on individualism and responsibility to oneself.The Sulha is the Arab traditional way of conflict resolution. It works because of the collective responsibility of the extended fa mily (hamula). This responsibility and commitment to preserve the honor and reputation of the family prevents all members of the family (even those who did not participate personally in the ceremony, and future generations) from breaking the customs and laws of the Sulha (Jabur, 1993). The Sulha is usually used in disputes such as family honor, killing, physical harm, or maiming.In desert areas and arid zones we find the use of the Sulha also in water disputes, as among the Bedouins in the south of Israel and the Berbers in Morocco. â€Å"Both Berbers and Bedouin follow this Islamic practice of a ritual ceremony of forgiveness. Once the ceremony is performed, the dispute may not be discussed – it is as if it never occurred† (Wolf, 2000). It is an effective and efficient way of resolving disputes in these communities. Even in cultures with a high degree of collective responsibility (such as Japan and China), we find cases where individual goals are opposed to the collec tive ones.We recognize the existence of sub-cultural differences in religions, organizations, and gender, and within various groups of professions (doctors, engineers, and so on). People who work in teams seem to demonstrate a collective responsibility, more so than pilots or athletes such as long-distance runners who are used to working individually. It is possible that the subculture of a hydraulic engineer as a professional person, will clash with his/her national culture of a certain belief and attitude towards water as a symbol.Culture is a very complex but important component, which should be taken into account in negotiation because it influences our perception of the world, our set of values, our actions, our decisions, and the results of the process. When negotiating with people, one should keep in mind that negotiators have different personalities, they come from different backgrounds, carry certain values and beliefs, and that the differences in their culture can be manif ested in several ways. One has to be aware of the many factors which may impact the negotiation: time, language, body signs, style, space, symbols, social and collective esponsibility, and the tradition of the social system. The Umatilla Basin conflict was over reserved water rights of the Indian Tribes for protection of the flow for fisheries, and for the use of the water by non-Indians for irrigation. This conflict over water rights not only carried within it the economic issues, but also had significant religious and cultural importance for the Indians, which had to be taken into consideration for the success of the consensus building process. (http://www. umatilla. nsn. us/basin. html) 12The cultural aspect is evident in ethnic conflicts within a country, and between nations. Negotiators from different cultures will value the element of time and space differently. Negotiators from some cultures are task-oriented and want to conclude the deal, while others are relationship-orient ed, and will not reach an agreement before getting to know, and creating a relationship with, the other party. Some negotiators perceive the negotiation process as a zero-sum game, a competitive process, while others will view it as a cooperative, joint problem-solving process.Some may come from social systems where force and power determine the results of the negotiation, and some from cultures where women are not accepted as negotiators. Culture is manifested in the behavioral styles of nations or communities, norms of behavior, hierarchies of social system, and social behavior. Negotiation can fail because one party is not sensitive to these cultural differences, or to the special communication style and decision-making pattern of their partners. Identity as defined by J. Rothman â€Å"is people’s collective need for dignity, recognition, safety, control, purpose, and efficacy. Many conflicts carry within them identity issues, and these conflicts may last many decades and be very destructive domestically (the conflict in Northern Ireland) or internationally (the conflict in Yugoslavia). Many international and group conflicts contain identity-based interests and needs that were not fulfilled (Rothman, 1993). These types of conflicts are very difficult to resolve and often require the assistance of a third party, acting as a facilitator/mediator. Sometimes a team of facilitators/mediators is used.The approach to resolving cultural and identity-based conflicts is a combination of interest-based negotiation and the process of dialogue and consensus building. The â€Å"third party† would help to identify the parties to the negotiation and decide who the participants will be; conduct a conflict assessment by identifying the major issues and interests of the parties; and identify the reasons and motivation for participating and resolving the conflict. Because the process is voluntary, one has to: ? ? ? ? Understand the needs of the parties to partic ipate. Build confidence in the process among the parties.Design the process as one that is open and honest. Provide equal access to data and information to all parties in order to build confidence in the process and the participants, facilitate their dialogue, assist in generating many creative options, and come to a consensus on the best option(s) and a solution acceptable to the parties. It is then the responsibility of the parties to implement the agreed solution. These tasks may take place over an extended period of time, depending on the ability and willingness of the parties to work for mutual gain, and the nature and complexity of the negotiation. 3. 5.Psychological Aspects The psychological attitude of individuals to negotiation, their personal perceptions, past experience, and expectations are manifested in rational or irrational decisions, which have an effect on the outcome of the negotiation. When people engage in negotiation there are emotions involved that affect their attitude and actions. Anger, hurt, revenge, hope, and fear are all feelings that one brings to the negotiation table, and these feelings influence the process and have an impact on the outcome. These feelings have to be dealt with by the parties in order to reach a rational decision and resolve the dispute. 3 Negotiators arrive at the negotiation table not only with their personal feelings, but also with their personal tendencies and analysis of the situation. For example, the negotiator can be loss or risk averse, overconfident and optimistic, or unrealistic about the uncertainty of the negotiation outcome. These tendencies influence their behavior, and create obstacles, which may lead to unreasonable decisions (Tversky and Kahanman, 1995). Some negotiators tend to assume that it is best not to disclose information if they want to succeed in the negotiation.Parties are sometimes too concerned with the fear of â€Å"being taken advantage of† to be able to think of the negoti ation in terms of â€Å"joint problem solving. † Parties in a competitive negotiation may be indifferent to the gains of the other, but more often this competitiveness leads the parties down an emotional path where minimizing gains or causing a loss to the other party becomes the goal, even at the expense of their own interests. Many negotiators assume that the â€Å"pie is fixed† and therefore negotiate over position and not interests.The â€Å"fixed-pie bias† can prevent the parties from taking advantage of opportunities to enlarge the pie (Birk and Fox, 1999). 3. 5. 1. Psychological Traps Wanting to look tough and consistent in the eyes of the other party, and finding it important to prove – to themselves, to the constituencies at home, or to others – that one was right acting the way one did, may be a trap. It is common for negotiators to focus and react to the other party and their attitude, moves, and tactics, rather than focusing on a strate gy that would advance their own needs and interests.In many cases, this commitment to a course of action they started will be at a cost and will not achieve their own goals. As time moves on, parties to the negotiation feel that they have too much time, money, and ego invested, and backing off becomes less and less of an option (Bazerman and Neal, 1993). Both sides will often start with extreme demands, expecting to compromise somewhere in the middle. Getting caught up in the struggle, not wanting to be the first to â€Å"blink,† toughens the negotiation and makes both sides become more entrenched in their initial position.Parties may wish to impress the others by acting strong, being consistent, and making sure that they will not be taken advantage of. This also involves a notion that negotiators adopt in the line of showing strength: if you have doubts – be overconfident. This, and the need to be in full control, does not allow the questioning of one’s positio ns or the development of an ability to view things from different perspectives and consider different, sometimes more productive, approaches that would advance the negotiation.Being committed to a certain position or course of action creates a bias in favor of the data consistent with this specific course of action. One is ready and able to â€Å"hear† data and information that will support this position, but not open to hear or accept new ideas. This course encourages the parties in further self-persuasion and rationalization concerning the correctness of their positions. It also entails holding on to one’s positions without looking more deeply into the initial interests that may contradict the positions displayed.This attitude will lead the parties to miss opportunities to create options (or find a trade off) that might enlarge the pie and benefit both sides. Some negotiators would prefer to leave issues open or unresolved, and would even create a dispute rather than think they were defeated or were forced to make concessions. Instead of taking the risk of cooperating, some people would prefer the risk of competing, hoping to â€Å"win. † Research indicates that many negotiators will choose a small sure win over a risky larger win (Bazerman, 1986). 4 Research indicates that people become more entrapped when: ? ? ? They are especially anxious about their appearance in the eyes of others. They believe their effectiveness is judged and criticized by others (Rubin, 1981). They tend to interpret the other party’s offer of concession as a sign of weakness. This tendency makes one suspicious towards gestures of a constructive nature. Concession may be perceived as a â€Å"too easy gain† and rejected, while demands that are rejected or denied would be perceived as important.It is important to evaluate rationally what it is that one is about to lose or sacrifice. In many cases, an offer of concession may be perceived as an opportuni ty to demand and gain more, and instead of responding in a constructive manner, it leads to further toughening one’s positions (Ross and LaCroix, 1996). Other points that should be borne in mind are: ? ? When one is on a non-constructive course, the tendency is to expand and escalate. Conflicts independent of their initiating causes are developed, and are likely to continue after the initiating causes have been solved (Deutsch, 1973).Negotiators should try and search for the issues that both parties share in common, rather than the issues that would further expand the differences and create more barriers and dichotomies between the parties, misinterpretations of the other’s line of thought, and reduction of their own ability to resolve the dispute. The non-cooperative way of perceiving negotiation is not necessarily an outcome of people’s personality or character, but part of the western competitive society. It may be due to the fact that the parties o not know another way. ? In the â€Å"cooperative approach† it is important to share interests that will enable the parties to see the picture as a whole, evaluating the issues and interests, so that an agreement will be reached that will be acceptable to all parties, and not leave any ungarnered gains on the negotiating table. All parties have to understand that they have a common stake in the situation and that there is more to be gained by negotiating and exchanging ideas than by competing.A basic motivation in an â€Å"interest-based negotiation† is to collaborate for the mutual benefit of all parties. Putting one’s needs and interests on the negotiation table includes the presupposition that the other party is willing to take them into account and show understanding of those needs. Realizing that even opposing needs can be dealt with in a different way may lead to some creative new ideas. A well-known example that best describes the idea of the cooperative, integrati ve approach to negotiation is Mary Parker Follet’s story of the two sisters who both wanted the same orange.A non-cooperative but reasonable solution would be to cut it in half, each of the sisters getting her share. But, underestimating the true needs and interests of each of the sisters, it is revealed that while one wants to squeeze the orange in order to drink its juice, the other is aiming for its rind, planning to bake a cake with it. In this case it is possible to reach a solution that allows each of the sisters to gain more than by the presumably reasonable solution of cutting it in half (Fox and Urwick, 1973). 15In more complex situations, where the parties plan on future cooperation, a truly integrative negotiation would lead not only to a mutually agreed solution, but enlarge the pie by not leaving joint gains on the table. To reach an innovative solution, trust has to be gained. Trust makes it possible to open up consideration of the other party’s perspecti ve, needs, and interests. Sharing information, discussing concerns, talking about needs, and developing ways of thinking together will create a cooperative mode for a joint problem-solving negotiation process.Learning the strategies and techniques of interest-based negotiation, and understanding its benefits, make it possible to transform not only the approach towards negotiation, but also people’s perception of the way one should deal with conflicts. In many cases, where suspicion and mistrust are involved, where the dynamic is negative and destructive, and the negotiation process has come to a standstill, it is beneficial to use a neutral third party, a mediator, who will help facilitate the negotiation process. A third party’s presence may help to change the atmosphere.In the presence of a neutral, some of the antagonism and suspicions may be transformed into rational evaluation of the situation, helping to overcome the distrust in order to cross barriers that stand in the way of resolution. 3. 6. International Negotiation In past decades, only diplomats conducted international negotiation and agreements between countries. Negotiating today is not restricted to the diplomatic corps; it involves professional people, experts, non-governmental organizations, local interested groups, local authorities, and international entities, all of which have an impact on the process.Cultural issues play a major part in international negotiation, and have a significant impact on it. A strong personal relationship and trust between the negotiators can be a positive force in future agreements. Issues such as personal relations, time, sovereignty, face-saving, mode of bargaining, and hierarchy, which are culturally based, need to be considered during negotiations between different nations, societies, and ethnic groups. Today it is realized that conflicts and the issues involved are very complex, the outcomes are far reaching, and can often affect other nations, a region, or the world.The international negotiation process is more complex, because of the various interdependencies between countries, cultural issues, and past history, and the fact that individual people, or a group of people negotiate on behalf of a collective. Their culture, psychology, emotional state, behavior, ethics, values, and private agendas may affect the outcome of the negotiation. In the past decades the world has become one global village. Distances are smaller, communication means are easier and faster, and the economy has become a major factor in international relations.A conflict between two or more countries may affect a whole region. The conflict in Yugoslavia had an adverse effect economically on the shipping and transport industry on the Danube, with very heavy financial loses for countries such as Hungary, Ukraine, Germany, Romania, and Austria, which were not connected with the conflict in Yugoslavia (Egglestone, 1999). The Israeli–Palestinian confl ict affects the whole region, especially the economy and political situation of Israel and the Palestinian Authority, but also neighboring countries such as Egypt and Jordan that are negatively affected. 6 A conflict in one country may affect many markets around the world, as dependency between nations, economies, and international institutions – along with conflict situations – has increased. The terrorist attack in New York on September 11 2001 had a serious economic effect not only on the US but also on the global economy. We live in a new and changing world, in which negotiation plays a major role in resolving these conflicts. The bilateral arena is simpler than the multilateral arena because of the fact that there are only two adversaries with conflicting interests.The multilateral arena is a very involved one because of the fact that there are a number of parties, and many issues and interests at stake. The parties have to manage this complex situation by simplif ying, structuring, and deciding on the priorities of issues. They have to manage the proceedings, and the orientation that will provide a direction toward a mutually agreeable outcome (Zartman, 1994; see also article by Young in that volume). In the process of negotiation between countries, or international entities, one nation often needs to build a coalition with others to achieve its goals.The parties to the coalition do not have necessarily the same interests, priorities, or values, but have some similar objectives. Countries who try to form a coalition often use power, economic or military dependencies, and other strategies to induce other countries to join the coalition. The United States built a coalition with many countries during the Gulf war, and in the war against terrorism in Afghanistan. Coalitions are created by negotiation with the countries one wants as allies and partners, against another country (Watkins and Rosegrant, 1996).Turkey, while in conflict with Iraq and Syria, has created an economic and military alliance with Israel, buying military equipment from Israel, and is willing to sell water to Israel, while Syria, who in the past had a conflict with Iraq, strengthened her economic ties with that country (Francona, 1999). www. suit101. com/article/ctm/28688 Parties can form coalitions that may change in time, and with them the issues and interests may shift in the ladder of priorities. Multilateral agreements are always reached by consensus.Bangladesh, which formed a coalition with India who helped in gaining its independence from Pakistan, is threatening to cancel the Treaty of Friendship with India because of the issues of reduced quantities of water and increased salinity in the water, which endangers the existence of millions in Bangladesh (Frederick, 1996). Often countries negotiate over issues that influence directly the local/domestic publics. These publics may determine the outcome of the negotiation by supporting or 17 opposing a n agreement.It is important for a country to reach a consensus with the local domestic entities before an international agreement is reached. The Dutch nurseries and the Pure Water Institution sued the Alsace Potassium Co. ; the fact that there was a lawsuit against a French company influenced the French Government in their decision to ratify the 1979 Chemical Agreement (Haftendorn, 1999). 3. 7. Negotiations Over Water An increasing number of states are experiencing occasional or lasting water stress, yet in most cases mechanisms and institutions to manage disputes over water resources are either absent or inadequate.Competition over this precious resource could increasingly become a source of tension – and even conflict – between states and sectors. History has often shown that the need for freshwater can cause different users to cooperate, rather than allow confrontations that could jeopardize the water supplies. Competition may arise between different groups or sect ors (agriculture and cities), between countries (upstream–downstream), and over allocation and use of water between urban development and the environment. Water Conflicts can be resolved in various ways: ? ? Force: a decision imposed by force on one or more of the parties. Adjudication: a decision rendered by an authority, state, institution, Court of Law, or Special Master. Some states assign a â€Å"Special Master† who will act as a judge or arbitrator in water disputes. Negotiation: a decision requiring an agreement among the parties. The tendency for resolution in the world today is to use interest-based negotiation and mediation, equitable and reasonable use of water, and reach an agreement where the parties will jointly manage the shared water resources. . 7. 1. International Water Negotiations/Conflicts Water has always been an integral part of a nation’s history, religion, and culture, and carries an important symbolic importance. Problems and disputes o ver water in the national and international arena are a fact of life. Water, as a scarce resource, has always been a reason for conflicts between people, communities, and nations. Conflicts over water exist in many parts of the world.These conflicts can arise nationally and internationally and are due to the competing needs for and utilization of the water: drinking, irrigation, transportation, flood control, hydro-electricity, fishing, recreation, and the environment. Conflicts can arise between riparians situated upstream – who control the sources – and those downstream, who are at a disadvantage (e. g. the Nile, Sudan and Egypt), between those on the two banks of a river (the Parana River between Paraguay and Brazil), or around a lake (Lake Chad and The Sea of Galilee).Conflicts arise because of a range of issues. QUANTITY Concerns over quantity arise when the resource is not sufficient to meet all the needs of the riparian countries, frequently because of rising de mands due to population growth and improved standards of living. A country upstream, which controls the source, often claims sovereignty over the water, resulting in a conflict with the downstream countries. 18 Turkey claims sovereignty over the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and started the GAP project, which will be beneficial to Turkey.This is a source of concern to Syria and Iraq downstream, and has resulted in tension with Turkey. (http://www. mfa. gov. tr/grupa. ad/adg/adgc/html) WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION When upstream countries cause the pollution of a river and degrade the quality of the water reaching downstream riparians, water quality and pollution can cause conflicts between the users. Many countries along its route use the river Rhine. Pollution of the river has been caused by the chemical industries of Germany, Switzerland, and France, and the shipping industry along the river.The shipping issue was resolved in 1950 by creating an International Commission. The chemical pollution imposed a burden on the Netherlands, who

Topic about education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Topic about education - Essay Example Such an individual begins a project and completes it successfully with all the grit and determination. He may not have long suffixes of degrees and diplomas after his name, trophies and medals to decorate the private showcase. But he creates a name for himself in the society and secures a permanent place in human history. He reserves for himself some pages in the recorded saga of progress of humankind and as such he is the product of man-making education. America, deeply entrenched in the era of technological advances and the internet revolution has neglected the true spirit of education in an individual’s life and this is the bad side of American education. Material gains, have failed to provide true happiness to people in America today. Creative genius, a passion to learn at all times while observing, participating in small and big occasions in life, to understand the significance of interaction with the lowest and the highest on an even keel, need to be the true assets of a n educated individual and the educational institutions must mold the students as such to turn out fully integrated personalities that contribute to the societal harmony and the well-being of the nation, and that is the true index of individual happiness. If one studies the processes of achievements of Richard P. Feynman, as articulated by him in his book, â€Å"Surely Youre Joking, Mr. Feynman! (Adventures of a Curious Character)†, one realizes the importance of encouraging creativity and the ability of self-education in the students in educational institutions. Each educational institution professes to do the same, encourages the latent talents of the students, but the hidden agenda of the college and the student is career-oriented, and securing good positions with high packages is their primary objective. The compilation of syllabus and the selection of lesson is an important

CONTRACT LAW ASSIGNMENT 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CONTRACT LAW ASSIGNMENT 4 - Essay Example Contract terms of employment could change due to changed economic circumstances, or to bring about improvements in working conditions3. Materially changed circumstances are always admissible especially for the benefit of children. Contracts could be changed if there is an absolute change in the law4that occurs during the course of contract. If the other party becomes seriously ill, permanently incapacitated, called for military services or dies5 contract could be frustrated. If the contract depends on a certain state of affairs which alters, contracts could be frustrated6. Commercial purpose of contract could be frustrated if unalterable circumstances take place7. It also can happen if the main object of contract becomes void subsequently8 and the circumstances should be acceptable to Court. Fred and George have won the contract together for the installation of water system and this makes both of them bound by contract9. Still there is a contract between George and Fred and George defaults his side of it by delaying the work. Fred tries to accomplish his side of contract, but fails to do so, after doing three quarters of the work because he had to honour another contract. Fred has to be paid by George as he has done a lot of his share of work and it is George's delay that made Fred leave the job for honouring another contract. Still George and Fred are liable for completing the water system to the third party and here their liability is equal. Fred can claim payment from George for the work he has done. If he could prove that it was George's delay that caused him trouble, he might be able to get damages from George via Court. Still he will be liable to honour the first contract of completing water systems and will be forced to do so10. If water systems claim damages fro m the two of them for delay, Fred too may have to pay the damages, though he could have a lesser share of it, if he succeeds in proving that George defaulted his contract with him as well as with water systems. Not paying Fred would go against George and will give more strength to Fred's argument and Court might take a lighter view of his abandoning one quarter of the work under changed circumstances of contract which clearly redeems Fred for non-payment and delay by George. This could be taken as self-induced frustration. Fred also will be paid for the contract completed as it could be considered as 'substantially completed' and it entitles for a payment of services and goods, though it will be compared with the work NOT done. QUESTION THREE: Presuming that the illness of the parties could be traceable to the sandwiches and fault lies with Harry, his defence will be weak. He might be able to prove that the meat was contaminated not through his fault, but was supplied to him in contaminated state and he was unaware of it, whereby the fault will be divided between the meat supplier and Harry. If he could not prove that and if the contamination is due to his fault (meat supplier might prove that other meat of the same category is not faulty), he will be liable for the sickness caused to the parties. Ian's garden getting neglected might not cause much harm to Harry. John can

ROLE OF BUSINESS ETHICS IN CORPORATE AMERICA, GLOBAL ECONOMY AND Research Proposal

ROLE OF BUSINESS ETHICS IN CORPORATE AMERICA, GLOBAL ECONOMY AND LATEST FINANCIAL CRISIS - Research Proposal Example The corruption and greed that came with power of absolute control through economy also played it pivotal role in the gradual deterioration. The ideology of free market economy and the capitalist economy gave rise to the economic set up that is most evidently practiced in America. It rose against the communist and fascist ideals and became the representative system of democracy. As the economies grew they evolved into a particular system with concrete rules and regulations. The business and industries developed and as the economy became global, these industries and businesses developed into multinational organizations and corporate. The corporate became the central organs of the economic system, and with these in place, arose the need of maximizing profits. However, with the complete control of economy came power for these corporate that also held the place to make key decisions. As is said the absolute power corrupts absolutely, so with the complete control over most of economic decisions and with the power to manipulate governments with their economic sway, the corporate leaders indulged in corruption and the trickle-down effect held true, as all those under them, followed their lead. The corporate culture that developed in these circumstances was fraught with unethical practices; it fed greed and greed in turn lead to corruption in all the main quarters. While some of them were charged and punished for their practices, most of them continued the practices under the pretense of maximization of profits that ultimately had to trickle-down to the lower strata of the society. This however, was not the case and while the money accumulated in the coiffeurs of the few, the main people who were supposed to be the beneficiary of the free market suffered and failed to progress. The situation all over the globe remained the same. The fiscal crisis also, affected those at the lower-strata of society, or in the underdeveloped countries, making their sufferings even worse. Starting with the sub-prime mortgage crisis, the economy in America faced a severe fiscal predicament, and the situation led to a complete withdrawal of faith on part of the people in the economic policies and transactions of government. This crisis in turn affected the global economy as all those nations who had invested in the corporations that were declared bankrupt or were on the verge of it, sank taking with them all the invested money. The economies globally were also affected because of the severely interconnected nature of the global trade and business. A lower federal reserve in any country affected the trust of all other countries in them and with the US itself on brink of fiscal disaster due to lack of liquidity, the current situation becomes a matter of grave concern for all involved. The situation also attests to the fact that transformations in the current economic set-up are gravely required. Conclusion The need of the time is to devise methods and make laws, as well as to make sure of the implementation of

Circumcision in the United States Research Paper

Circumcision in the United States - Research Paper Example All the reasons summed up result to a conclusion that circumcision is a normal practice that should take root in the American culture. Circumcision in the United States Circumcision is a procedure known and practiced by millions of people across the globe. It is the removal of a penis’ foreskin in males or removing of clitoris or labia minora in females. However, this paper relates to male circumcision. In the United States majority of males are circumcised and they form about 85 percent which is a figure derived from states like California, Texas and Georgia among others. It is important to note that the rate of newborn circumcision has increased by 12.8 percent according to Schoen (2007). Many men are also being circumcised at later stages in life owing to personal, medical or religious reasons. Circumcision in actual sense has more benefits than risks and should be a normal and required practice in the United States. Reasons for circumcision As stated above men or male chil dren are circumcised based on three main reasons namely: religion or culture, medical reasons and personal reasons. Religion or culture It is the norm in many cultures for male children to be circumcised after being born. In others circumcision takes place at the onset of puberty. Jews and Muslims are the notable groups of people who uphold strict circumcision traditions based on religion and culture. Circumcision that is carried out at puberty mostly acts as a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood especially in many African cultures. Christians on the other hand are divided on whether to take circumcision as a norm or let an individual decide. Catholic Church for example presently holds a neutral ground in as far as medical reasons are concerned. Medical reasons Medical side to circumcision holds a great deal of controversy with experts staging conclusions from both ends i.e. some favoring the practice while others refuting it on medical grounds. Schoen, Wiswell and Moses (20 00) state that American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) for example, claimed back in 1971 that it was hard to prove validity of circumcision of newborns. They also termed it as a non-essential for the newborns’ well-being. Contrastingly, studies by Wiswell et al. showed that newborns are 10-20 times protected from Urinary Tract Infections through circumcision. In addition, AAP in 1999 provided a list of six benefits and one risk i.e. surgical mishap which was also indicated to be rare at 0.2 percent. Some of the benefits include reduced chances of acquiring HIV, UIT, penile and cervical cancers and Chlamydia among others (Castellsague, Peeling, & Franceschi et al. 2005). In general, medical benefits of circumcision far outweigh the risks involved in both children and adults. The first major benefit is the reduced chances of contracting certain diseases and infections for example the UTI and HIV (Zorc, Levine & Platt, 2005). A circumcised man is also less likely to result to cervi cal cancer in women. It is also less likely for one to contract syphilis. It is also 3 times less likely for a circumcised man to carry human papilloma virus. It is therefore empirically true that circumcision has more benefits than it has risks and as such it should be encouraged at national level. Personal experiences (under personal reasons) I know of two boys who were circumcised at birth. My nephew was forced to undergo circumcision due to medical

MBTI Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

MBTI Analysis - Research Paper Example For instance, extraversion versus intraversion determines the level to which a person is predicted to be more social or withdrawn. Each of these traits have an opposite personality trait and the strength of each is determined by a higher score for each type on the MBTI. RESULTS OF MBTI The results of the MBTI indicated my personality type was ESFJ, with a moderate expression of extraversion, a moderate score in judging, a moderate expression of feeling, and a very slight expression of sensing as part of my personality dynamics. The highest scores were extraversion with 56 and judging also with 56. These were my most significant scores of the four types. I am currently studying nursing, a job role that requires direct intervention with diverse and culturally-different patients, therefore extraversion is a desired trait in the role of nurse practitioner. Nurses are considered the primary source of information for patients and must serve as an advocate based on a trusting foundation of sociability (Morrison, 4). Extraverts â€Å"are keenly interested in other people and external events, and venture forth with confidence into the unknown† (Ewen, 1998, p.127). This suggests a higher level of sociability than an intraverted personality type, meaning that it is a predictor of a well-adjusted ability to function well in group environments. The extravert enjoys social environments and often takes a leadership role when exploring discussion in the group concept. In the role of nurse practitioner, there must be the ability to work directly with patients in order to explore their needs and concerns. Especially when dealing with patients that are battling difficult illnesses, they rely on the competence and social knowledge of the nurse in order to find quality and dimension in effective treatment programs. An introverted individual would not be able to serve the patient needs effectively and it is likely that the quality of treatment would suffer in the long-term. T his is why the MBTI index results reinforced that nursing is a quality profession for my unique personality type. I also maintain a moderate judging personality versus the opposite, which is feeling. Judging is the tendency to prefer a structured and orderly environment that is based on factual data, rather than in feeling where intuition and hunches are preferred over logical information. It is â€Å"the preferred method of managing the outer world† (Lucas, 2007, p.14). This, too, is important in the role of a nurse where orderly scheduling and statistical information must be considered when developing an appropriate treatment plan. It serves the role of the nurse practitioner well to be able to use logical analyses rather than acting on instinctive information so that the quality of patient care is top-notch. When working directly with physicians, there must be structure both in management and in the management of data to ensure zero errors and be able to coordinate treatme nt-based activities effectively. This is a field that would not be served well with an instinctive philosophy as is associated with perceiving and does not afford much in terms of spontaneity. Feeling also maintained a moderate score of 44, based on the results of the MBTI. This is how a certain personality type prefers to make decisions, either based on empathy, such as with feeling or as associated with thinking methodology. Feeling is a more personal type

Marketing Strategy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marketing Strategy - Research Paper Example The intelligent device is equipped with Police-grade Xtendâ„ ¢ Fuel Cell Sensor Technology to trace even the lowest possible amounts of alcohol, as low as 0.001% of Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) and confirms to be a significant use for security systems. The device is smallest, lightest, and thinnest with the ability to share the results via text messages or publicly on a social network with minimum manual interference (SAMSUNG, â€Å"BACtrack Mobile Breathalyzer†). MARKETING STRATEGY OF SAMSUNG BREATHALYZER Target Customer/Segments. Market segmentation helps to identify the most potential customer range to be served (Kotler and Keller 177-180). In case of is the newly launched breathalyzer, Samsung has taken into account all the three factors of targeting customer group, which are demographic, psychographic and behavioral. Simultaneously, it should also opt for multi segment targeting, which will ensure focusing on two or more defined market segments. Samsung can target the s chool authorities, car owners and young generation people who are aware of their safety needs. To be precise, school authorities are today, observed to be always in need to prohibit the intake of alcohol in the school premises and discourage students to do so even in their personal lifestyles. The intelligent device can give the freedom to school owners. ... Correspondingly, as most of the people including the above mentioned three segments, have been increasingly observed to prefer buying things online, Samsung must keep eyes on online users and try to attract them with captivating offers (Kotler and Keller 177-180). Positioning. Positioning is in general, referred as the process of creating brand awareness in the minds of the consumers. This process also involves improving the customers’ perceptions about the product (Kotler and Keller 198-200). Considering the recently on-going brand conflicts affecting Samsung’s brand positioning in the global market to a large extent, as a trusted brand, Samsung should not go for aggressive promotional strategy to promote its breathalyzer (Reuters, â€Å"Samsung's aggressive advertising rarely achieves desired effect†). It should rather use the positioning strategies of product attributes, product categories and benefits. Product attributes highlights a specific attribute of the product (Kotler and Keller 223-224). Accordingly, in marketing its breathalyzer, Samsung can highlight its features as different from its substitutes adding value to customer needs, as it is able to be connected with the smartphones and thus, reflect more accurate information. Additionally, positioning strategies based on product categories emphasize comparison of the product with its available competitive brands and helps to differentiate the brand to obtain competitive advantages by luring a larger volume of customers (Kotler and Keller 223-225). Similarly, Samsung use its product categorization to claim the accuracy of the breathalyzer and trace even the lowest possible amount of alcohol present in the blood until the level of 0.001 %. Simultaneously, Samsung can